The Ethics Of War Essays - Applied Ethics, Catholic Social Teaching

The Ethics Of War Root Entry MatOST MatOST Microsoft Works MSWorksWPDoc Jason Bennett Ethics I 5-11-98 Paper #2 The Ethics of War Discussed I choose to do my paper on the ethics of war, and plan to discuss the morality and rules of war. One of the biggest reasons that I chose this topic is that I was in the Army for a few years, and therefore have some insight and concern on the subject of war. I do not think that my opinions will be biased as I can still take an objective look at the arguments, but I do plan to argue that the morality of war is relative to the situation. I am generally in agreement with the author's of the articles in our textbook, and have read and understand their arguments. In Morality of Nuclear Armanent, Connery discusses when it is and is not permissible to use nuclear weapons to resolve a conflict. He starts out with several statements that set the tone for his argument. He says that Wars of aggression are always impermissible and The only just war is a defensive war.... This means that it is never permissible to attack another country, unless they have attacked or provoked you. Now this could be argued because there are many situations that I believe would warrant military aggression, that would not require an actual prior show of force. For example, the situation in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm. Sadam Hussien did not attack the United States, nor did his actions threaten the lives of U.S. citizens. I strongly believe however, that the U.S. had every right, if not an obligation to intervene with military force. The U.S. had economic interests to protect, as well as the defense of a small country that could not defend itself against the hostile attack. Connery also discusses the amount and type of force that is permissible. He says, In a defensive war, only proportional responses are permissible to answer aggression. An exception is possible if the enemy is extraordinarily well-armed and likely to use dis-proportionate force. For instance, if my enemy were in possession of nuclear bombs which I had good reason to believe he would use, it would be suicidal for me to choose the more leisurely precision bombing. This means that if the situation could be resolved with a limited display of military force, then it is not necessary or permissible to exceed this level of aggression in the attack. However, if the enemy you are facing has superior weapons or is willing to use devastating force against you, then you are permitted to use whatever actions necessary to resolve the situation and save your own country. The majority of Connery's argument focuses on the morality of waging indiscriminate warfare on non-combatants, i.e. non-soldiers, civilians. In his article he says: Moralists agree that the noncombatant may not be the direct target of any destructive weapon, large or small. This means that one may neither deliberately aim his attack at noncombatants nor drop bombs without distinction on combatants and noncombatants alike. Such bombing would be contrary to sound moral principles, even if resorted to only in retaliation. But granted a sufficiently important military target which could not be safely eliminated by any less drastic means, nuclear bombing would be morally justified, even if it involved the resultant loss of a large segment of the civilian population. It is presumed, of course, that the good to be achieved is at least equal to the expected damages. I would tend to agree with this argument, that it would be morally permissible to bomb civilians as long as the end justifies the means. But what justifies the merciless slaughter of innocent people? Connery says, But to be justified, the loss of civilian life must be unavoidable and balanced by a proportionate good to the defender. This view is not shared by Ford, who in his article The Hydrogen Bombing of Cities, he argues that it is never permissible to kill noncombatants. It is never permitted to kill directly noncombatants in wartime. Why? Because they are innocent. That is, they are innocent of the violent and destructive action of war, or of any close participation in the violent and destructive action of war. It is

Hooray, hooray! It’s Presidents Day!

Hooray, hooray! It’s Presidents Day! Hooray, Hooray! It’s Presidents Day! Whether you think of  Presidents Day as a patriotic celebration of our country’s political leadership, or just a day off from work and/or school, it’s surely a good time to reflect on the educational legacy of President Washington and his successors. By â€Å"educational legacy† here, we don’t mean the policies they introduced while in office or donations made to colleges; we’re interested in what our presidents were like as students. Harry Truman, College Dropout Not every president has been a â€Å"classic† educational role model, with many not graduating at all. The most recent was Harry Truman, who dropped out of business school after only one semester. To be fair, he did drop out because of his family’s financial problems rather than a lack of interest in learning. And he did later become president. So he must have been doing something right. A Very Different Playbook Would history have differed much had Gerald Ford accepted one of the two offers he received from NFL clubs after graduating from the University of Michigan? Courtesy Gerald R. Ford Library. It’s hard to say, but he managed to help the Wolverines to national titles in 1932 and 1933, as well as winning the team’s MVP award in his senior year. Whether his skills as a linebacker were at all useful in office, we can only guess. Skull and Bones Yale University’s â€Å"Skull and Bones† society is notorious for its secrecy and elitism, inviting only the most powerful students to join. This has so far included three future presidents: William Howard Taft, George H. W. Bush, and George Bush Jr. Apparently, the initiation ritual for new members involves divulging â€Å"intimate personal details, including their full sexual histories.† Sounds fine to us. After all, there’s no way giving away sensitive personal information could possibly pose a terrible blackmail risk. If there was, they wouldn’t do it, right? Right? Go Team President! On a lighter note, four future presidents have spent their college days cheerleading, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush. Wait, George Bush Jr was a cheerleader and a member of Skull and Bones? When did the man find time to study? Maybe he just didn’t bother. That’s â€Å"Dr. Woodrow,† Thank You Out of the 43 people who’ve been president, one stands out for his educational achievements: Dr. Woodrow Wilson, PhD. The only president to have a college doctorate, Wilson earned a PhD in political science from John Hopkins University, producing a dissertation called â€Å"Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics.† He later went on to teach at Bryn Mawr College. So although Woodrow might be better known for his achievements as 28th President of the United States, from now on we’ll think of him first as an academic high-achiever. Happy Presidents Day!

North Street Primary School Upgrade Proposal Essay

North Street Primary School Upgrade Proposal - Essay Example The utilization of artificial lights in the presence of natural light makes the structure to be less friendly to the environment and thus contribute in emitting greenhouse emissions and harm the structure economically by increasing the energy bill for the structure. North Street Junior School is facing the similar problem thus it needs few amendments to cure the problems related to the greenhouse emission and the energy consumption. The school utilizes the artificial lights to enlighten the inner building and utilize maintain the temperature by utilizing the electricity. All the classrooms have radiators that help maintain the temperature during all seasons. In general, the building of the school is an old patterned building that utilizes an immense amount of energy for all the systems. In my view, the building was such made to restrict the outer air from being penetrated into the building but due to the lack of technology, it also restricted the natural lights from penetrating into the building that is the major reason for its higher energy consumption. On the other hand, the utilization of the fossil fuel and electricity based temperature controlled system also consumes a major portion of the electrical energy increasing the number of carbon footprints. At some place lack of insulation permits the inner atmosphere to diffuse into the outer environment making the temperature control unit to work more than required. The School is surrounded by smaller building, thus allowing a lot of light to be faced by the building (Cayless, & Marsden, 1997, p45-122). The immense amount of light may serve as to enlighten the building and to provide warm water and air to be circulated to the school. However, the dominant feature of the building is that the building is a symbol of cultural heritage and it should be touched little but implementing effective alteration in the building to consume lower energy units and reduce the greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, the solar water hea ters should be placed over the roofs of the building to capture the solar energy and heat the water and then circulate the heated water into the building. The structure is an attraction for its architecture and limits the renovation and thus it can be considered the biggest disadvantage of the building to make it green. The site of the school can be utilized to implement the energy-saving tactics. The ground can also help in maintaining the temperature inside the building through the process of geothermal heating (Level, n.d). In the geothermal process, water circulating pipes are buried into the ground about 4 to 10 feet under the surface. As the temperature inside the surface remains constant to 18-25 degrees on the Celsius scale, the circulated water through the ground attains the similar temperature and thus can be utilized to maintain the temperature inside the building by circulating the water. In general conditions, the thermal energy is provided by electrical energy or burni ng natural gas or oil, which is responsible for the increase in the carbon footprints(Burberry, 1997, p17-73). The better way is to utilize the alternate sources instead of conventional resources of energy. However solar heating is considered to give better results, more warn and less humid air. On the other hand, electric or gas heaters consume a huge amount of resource and emit a large proportion carbon dioxide.

History of Mexican music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History of Mexican music - Essay Example Ranchera is considered to be an outgrowth of a son. That has been â€Å"A type of song that was literally sung on a Mexican ranch, ranchera originated in the mid-19th century, just before the Mexican revolution†. Love, patriotism and nature are remained to be the most popular themes for this type of songs. Mariachi is considered to be highly popular style of music in Mexico. It consists of â€Å"at least two violins, two trumpets, a Spanish guitar, and two other types of guitars - the vihuela and guitarron†. Norteà ±o is considered to be a more modern variant of folk music in Mexico. The matter is that â€Å"in the late 19th century European migrants brought the accordion, waltz and polka, from their homeland to Northern Mexico and the U.S. Southwest†. Local bands have adopted these instruments and establish a new genre of music.As for the popular Mexican music, there are also a huge number of variations with interesting implications and influence of modern glob al culture. It is possible to distinguish Latin alternative, Mexican Ska, Rock and Pop music as the basic directions of modern music.Latin alternative is considered to be a â€Å"music created by young players who have been raised not only on their parents' music but also on rock, hip-hop and electronica†. The wave of Mexican Ska has started in the 1960s when young bands and big orchestras intend to recorded ska tunes and covers of Jamaican hits. The most popular groups are Dilemma, The Chasm, Xiuhtecuhtli, Disgorge, Brujeria, Transmetal, Hacavitz, Sargatanas, Mictlayotl and others.

Strategic analysis paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Strategic analysis - Research Paper Example In 1928, the General Mills acquired other companies due to its fast growth. The companies that were involved in the merger included the Wichita Mill and Elevator Company. Between the years 1929 and 2004, the General Mills was involved in several other mergers (Brucato 2012). The main aim of the mergers was to enable the company to produce high quality products that would be acceptable in the market. For example, in the year 1965, the General Mills bought Rainbow Crafts, which was the manufacturer of Play-DOH. This buying of the company benefited General Mills since it played a big role in reducing the costs of production in the company and also the revenue that the company got from it transactions increased drastically. Merging of companies has a great advantage to the companies involved in the merger (Doz and Hamel 1998). The company sells different food products in several brands in the world market. These include brands such as Betty Crocker, Yoplait, Colombo, Trix and Lucky Charm s to mention a few. Since the year 2004, the General Mills Company has produced products of high quality but their main market has been the wealthy that are conscious with their health. In 2012, the company was ranked among America’s largest corporations. The company was also ranked as the third-largest consumer products company in the United States of America. The purpose of studying the General Mills was to understand in great depth its current financial situation and also its current position among the words’ food producing companies so that a strategy and action can be taken to improve the quality of the products it produces. This would also help to trigger its rise in the ranking of food producing companies worldwide. During the study, the possible big competitors to the company were also examined. The study looks at the strengths of the company, its weaknesses, opportunities and threats that it might be facing since its foundation. The threats that the General Mi lls experiences in other words are also the problems that the company faces. The study therefore helped to come up with the solutions to the problems. General Mills, Inc just like several other food producing companies has strengths and weaknesses that must first look at and considered so that the company can be successful and be at par with other food producing companies in the United States and in the world (Brucato 2012). There are also opportunities that have come up in the company recently as a result of its success and production of quality products. Despite all these strengths and opportunities, there exist several threats that are a great problem in the development of the company (Dess, Gregory, Lumpkin and Taylor 2005). The threats have negative impacts such as causing losses in the company. Among the strengths of the company, one is that the company has ready availability of resources that is important in the production of its products. This helps it to be consistent in it s production thus having a constant and a wide market for its goods. The other strength of the company is that it has good and fast transportation system for its finished products. General Mills has wide market worldwide and within the US. Therefore it has several aircrafts that are efficient in the exportation of the perishable food products to other countries. The other strength of the company is the availability of a ready market for its products. The company is ranked as the third largest food

Motivation theories used to explain turnover intention

Motivation theories used to explain turnover intention This chapter discussed the used of motivation theory to explain the turnover intention or behavior amongst the auditors in Sabah. Besides, turnover intention the dependent variable, job satisfaction and organizational commitment the independent variables are being defined and conceptualized in line with this study. The relevant literature or past research done on this area of study is also being reviewed. Lastly, the findings on the relationships between the variables are being discussed. 2.1 Theory 2.1.1 Theory of Reasoned Action Turnover process models draw heavily from rational decision making models such as Fishbein and Ajzens (1980) theory of reasoned action, which stresses the importance of behavioral intentions in predicting and understanding turnover. However, there is research on the manner on which attitudes and intentions get translated into behavior that can inform turnover theory and research. Examples include research on perceptions of behavior control, behavior consistency, and the role of emotional arousal. For the purpose of this study, Perceived Behavioral Control is usedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 2.1.1.1 Perceived Behavioral Control Many prominent models of the turnover process implicitly or explicitly use elements of Fishbein and Ajzens (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action. This theory and its evolution into the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) suggest that intentions to perform a behavior are the more immediate precursors to actual behavior. Intentions are a function of attitudes toward performing the behavior, which are in turn a function of beliefs concerning the consequences and desirability of such consequences of performing the behavior, and subjective norms concerning the behavior, which are a function of beliefs concerning what important referents think about the behavior and ones motivation to comply with those referents. A good deal of empirical research has supported this model, especially the critical role of intentions (Kim and Hunter, 1998). Individuals that having the behavior intention not necessary execute the intention in reality, which introduce the importance of the role of behavioral control. Ajzen (1991) defined control beliefs as the presence or absence of factors that may facilitate or impede the performance of a behavior. Perceived behavioral control is an individuals perceptions of their ability to perform a behavior based on control beliefs. Behavioral control is expected to reinforce behavioral intentions through increased perseverance and consideration of potential obstacles (Hom and Griffeth, 1995). In fact, Ajzen (1991) argues that behavior is a function of compatible intentions and perceptions of behavioral control. Perceived behavioral control should moderate the effect of intentions on behavioral control is positive. Thus, in a turnover context, turnover intentions may only lead to turnover when individuals perceive that they have control over the decision to quit. There are a number of reasons that individuals might perceive less control over this decision. Family or financial constraints could restrict mobility. Over time, individuals become increasingly invested in an organization, making it more difficult to leave (Becker, 1960). Perceptions of the availability and quality of alternatives may affect perceived control. There is some evidence perceptions of alternatives interact with job satisfaction in leading to withdrawal (Jacofsky et al, 1986). Steel et al recently suggested that barriers to mobility are critical components of labor market cognitions. However, turnover researches do not typically directly measure perceived behavioral control over turnover decisions and have not assessed control as a potential moderator of the relationship between turnover intentions and turnover. Behavioral control should moderate the intentions-turnover relationship such that the relationship is stronger when control is higher, and weaker when control is lowest. 2.1.2 Role Theory For the purpose of study, role theory is used to explain the role stress experienced by the auditors. Role theory assumes that individuals lives are spent acting out an assortment of roles both within and outside the organizational context (Fisher, 2001). As cited by Fisher (2001), Katz and Kahn explained that each of these roles is assumed to be more a function of social setting rather than of the individuals own personality characteristics. Therefore, Fisher (2001) suggested that every position within an organization can be thought of as a specific role into which an individual is socialized. Under the role episode model, the process of socialization happens when a role senders directly or indirectly communicating to the role incumbent (focal person) their expectations of the incumbents responsibilities. Role ambiguity exits when goals of ones job or methods of performing it are unclear (Johns et al, 2007). Scholars Johns et al (2007) further explained that there are three elements that can lead to ambiguity, which are (1) the organizational factors, for example the middle management might fail to provide the big picture as they are not in the upper management level; (2) the role sender, for example role senders have unclear expectations of a focal person, or the message is not effectively communicate between a role sender and a focal person; (3) the focal person, as a new staff need time to fully digest the work expectation communicated to him. On the other hand, role conflict occurs when compliance with one sent role would compliance with another difficult (Cited by Fisher (2001) from Kahn et al, 1964). Kahn et al (1964) identify five major types of role conflict as below:- 1) Intra-sender conflict conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from the same sender 2) Inter-sender conflict conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from different sender 3) Inter-role conflict conflict between roles in situations where an individual holds more than one role 4) Person-role conflict where an individuals role requirements are incompatible with hus/her own beliefs, values and norms 5) Role-overload reasonable expectations may have been received from role senders, but he/she may not have enough time to address them all (Cited from Fisher (2001) review on Kahn et al (1964) research work) Scholars Van Sell at al (1981), Jackson and Schuler (1985) observed that both role ambiguity and role conflict are linked to negative outcomes, such as lower job satisfaction, increase on perceived job tension, lower job performance and greater turnover intention. 2.2 Conceptualization of Dependent Variable Turnover refers to resignation from an organization (Lee and Liu, 2006; Johns et al, 2007). Turnover can be classified as internal and external, voluntary or involuntary (Wiley, 1993). By internal turnover, it means that an employee is transferred to another department within the same company or group of companies. On the other hand, external turnover refers to the resignation of an employee permanently and henceforth represents the cost outflow to an organization. Wiley (1993) further explained that involuntary turnover happens when an employee is terminated for just caused, for example: sickness, death, retirement due to old age; and voluntary turnover is a situation whereby the employee join another organization on his/her accord, or participate in the voluntary separation scheme. Employee is the human capital of an organization (Quote). Employees have become the important tangible asset in an organization in this new k-knowledge world, especially within the service industry. Successful and established companies such as Virgin Airline and Honda have invested substantial amount on their employees in term of training and development cost, aiming to shape their employees to maintain the competitive edge. Henceforth, an employee departure is considered a nightmare to an organization especially with the highly skilled employees such as the IT specialist and audit managers. Not only the organization is unable to recover the training cost (Quote), they also lose their competitive advantage when the highly experienced and skilled employees join another competitor firm. High turnover also experienced in the unskilled position such as in the manufacturing plant and hotel line due to the low replacement cost for unskilled employees. The ease of replacing employees for th e lower rank staff no doubt will not cause substantial loss to an organization, but will affect the service or product quality as the new employees are unfamiliar with the organizations culture and work procedures. As a result of the significance of these costs, employees turnover has been widely studied since the 1900s with the various publications of qualitative and quantitative researchers of exceeding 1500 (Munchinsy and Morrow, 1980). Given the significance of the study, the determinants of turnover intention is widely studied in various industries, such as the hotelier (Atang, 2010), manufacturing (Udo et al, 1007), teachers (Currivan, 2000) information system (IT) (Rahman, 2008; Muliawan et al, 2009) and among public accountants or auditors (Lander et al, 1993; Perryer et al, 2010; Reed et al, 1994; Viator, 2001; Law, 2005; Lui et al, 2001; Hsieh et al, 2009; Hasin and Omar, 2007). The reasons for voluntary turnover are numerous and the list of determinants is still expanding. The most common reasons given by leavers are due to job dissatisfaction, lacking of career growth opportunities, poor relationship between supervisor and subordinate, to name a few. Khatri et al (2001) studied high turnover in Asian countries with sample size of 422 taken from food and beverage industry, shipping and marine industry and retailing industry suggested that the main reasons for high turnover were procedural justice and low org anizational commitment. The researchers also reported that managers had more turnover intention than non-managers and procedural justice was considered more important than the distributive justice, while organizational commitment was found to be very critical in turnover intention. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment and intention to leave are among the most commonly proposed antecedents to turnover (Tett and Meyer, 1993). The reasons of having turnover intention might vary based on individualistic (Atang, 2010). The recent research noted that researchers used other new variables sust as employees personality (Dole and Schroeder, 2001; Hsieh et al, 2009), hardiness (Law, 2005), gender (Reed et al, 1994) and organizational tenure (Udo et al, 1997) to determine the moderating effect on the turnover intention. It is observed that there are not many research done in the local setting and hence it is doubtful that if those results obtained from the Western countries can be generalized in Asia, in particular, Malaysia. Henceforth, the primary focus of this study is to examine the relationship between role stress and job satisfaction towards turnover intention amongst the auditors in Sabah, using organizational commitment as mediating variable. In the academic writing, most of the research that focus on employee turnover used direct determinant of turnover, intent to stay (Iverson, 1992; Price 1997) or turnover intention (Perryer et al, 2010; Hsieh et al, 2009; Rahman et al, 2008) to predict turnover as the data of actual turnover is typically hard to collect. Intent to stay (or leave) is defined as employees behavioral intention that has been found to have a strong negative influence on actual turnover (Iverson, 1992). A link between behavioural intentions and behavior has been well documented in the social psychological literature (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), as has a link between turnover intentions and turnover (Irvine and Evans, 1995; Richer et al, 2002; Tett and Meyer, 1993). Richer at al (2002) further commented that most employees having the intention to leave their job would most likely to quit if they have the choice. Other researchers agreed that behavioral intention is the most determinant of actual behaviour (Aj zen and Fishbein, 1980; Steel and Ovalle, 1984) and Rasch and Harrell (1990) further commented that there is positive relationships exist between intention to leave and turnover behaviour. The finding that turnover intention is the strongest predictor of turnover is similarly consistent (Meyer at at., 2002; Tett and Meyer, 1993). The turnover intention for this present study will be conceptualized as the having the intention or behavior to leave the organization voluntary (Atang, 2010). Based on the above discussion, turnover intention would be used interchangeable with Intent to stay (or leave). 2.3 Independent variables For the purpose of this study, role stress and job satisfaction are chosen as the independent variables that are most representing determinants in influencing the turnover intention amongst auditors in Sabah. 2.3.1 Role Stress Role stress is identified as stressors at individual level (Ivancevich et al, 2008) and has now becomes the focus point of the Organizational Behavior and Management study due to the importance of having a quality work-life balance. Under role theory (as explained in Section 2.1), stress can arise from a particular role episode when sent roles conflict with each other, or when information required to effectively carry out a sent role is lacking (Fisher, 2001). These situations are known as role ambiguity and role conflict. A role is a set of expectations on individual behavior due to his/her position in an organization (Lee, 1996). Role ambiguity and role conflict are typically viewed as a consequence of audit structure practice (Wittayapoom and Mahasarakham, 2007). The definition of role ambiguity and role conflict are thoroughly examined as below:- 2.3.1.1 Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity happens when an individual is unclear about the expectations or requirements of his/her job (Hitt et al, 2006). This includes ambiguity on the methods to be used, how performance is evaluated, an individuals responsibility and also the limits of ones authority (Johns et al, 2007). Black (1988) stated that role ambiguity happens when there is a lack of the necessary information available to a given organizational position. Smith (1990) in his review on Senatras (1988) study noted that 70 percent and 47 percent of reported role ambiguity in men and women respectively was attributed to organizational factors, such as adequacy of authority to make decisions and formalization of firm policies. Ambiguity on the audit work creates tension and anxiety, and hence leads to emotional stress, as employees are unclear of the expectations. Many of audit juniors experience role ambiguity, as they are unfamiliar with the work procedures and companys culture. Besides, different audit e nvironment warrants different attention from the audit staff, for example, the audit of a financial institute is different from auditing a non-profit organization. Henceforth, a new comer would easily feel lost and frustrated if there is no proper guidance and this might affect his/her work commitment or trigger the turnover intention. Vaitor (2001) in his research finding on public accounting organizations in United States concluded that informal mentors do indeed help to reduce role ambiguity among the audit staff. Ambiguity tends to decrease as length of time in the job role increases (Jackson and Schuler, 1985, as cited by Johns et al, 2007). 2.3.1.2 Role Conflict Role conflict is termed as the degree of incongruity or incompatibility of expectations associated with the role (House and Rizzo, 1972; Johns et al, 2007). Atang (2010) stated that employees perceive a role conflict when there is incompatibility between expectations and demands from various workgroups and conflicting role to be carried out by individual employee. Katz and Kahn (1978) explained in detail that conflict is the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role sending such that agreement with one party would make more difficult for the agreement of another (see details on Section 2.1 on role theory). For example, auditor A is assigned to work on an outstation assignment by his direct supervisor, but is requested to attend a training course as requested by the human resource manager for the same working week. Hence, auditor A is said having a role conflict. Viator (2001) suggested two types of role conflict that is relevant in the accounting practice, namely the inter-sender, which occur when the expectations of one role sender are in conflict with another role senders; and the person-role conflict, which happen when the role requirements violate the needs, capacities or beliefs of the individual (Viator, 2001). Sorenson and Sorenson (1974) operationalized role conflict as conflict between an auditors professional and bureaucratic orientations. Role conflict is arguably more severe experienced with female due to the society perception that woman is the primary care-givers (Law, 2010). For example, married women with first-born children are expected to stay in-house to nurse the baby, while her career may become less priority. This perception would cause stress to career women today who valued their job above all. The significance of role conflict is discussed in Smith (1990) studies in his review on Senatras (1988) research work, which stated that organizational stressors accounted for 64 percent of the reported role conflict among males, 79 percent among females. The factors that resulted in role conflict for both man and female that identified in the study are excessive job and time pressures, conflicting objectives, and suppression of relevant information (Senatra(1988) as cited by Smith (1990) studies). 2.3.1.3 Empirical Evidence of Role Stress in the Accounting Profession As cited by Fisher (2001), Senatra (1980) was the first study in the accounting literature to examine the sources of role stress with public accounting firms. Senatra identified ten specific elements of the organizational climate of the public accounting firms in which he hypothesized would affect perceptions of role ambiguity and role conflict, which were(1) violations in the chain of command; (2) formalization of firm rules and procedures; (3) emphasis on subordinate personnel development; (4) tolerance of error; (5) top-management receptiveness to ideas and suggestions; (6) adequacy of work coordination; (7) timeliness of superiors responses to problems; (8) information suppression by superiors and subordinates; (9) adequacy of authority; (10) adequacy of professional autonomy. Using a survey of 88 senior accountants, Senatra (1980) concluded that violations in the chain of command tends to increase both role ambiguity and role conflict. For the purpose of this study, role ambiguity is defined as the lack of clear and precise information regarding what is expected of the role incumbent (Muliawan et al, 2009), which is important to perform the job (Rizzo et al, 1970). Role conflict refers to occasions when an individual receives conflicting information or requests (Muliawan et al, 2009) when there is incompatibility between expectations and demands from various workgroups (Harris et al, 2006).

Death Penalty :: essays research papers

DEATH PENALTY  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The death penalty has been a staple in the justice system of America since its inception. Though very controversial, it has stood the test of time as the ultimate punishment. Many countries are currently abolishing their death penalty practice. America, on the other hand, has thirty-eight of fifty states with laws regarding the death penalty. It seems the United States requires the death penalty more than ever due to the increased rate of violent crime. Since nineteen ninety more than three hundred fifty people have been put to death with another three thousand three hundred in the waiting on death row. On a larger scale, since nineteen seventy-six five hundred fifty-two executions have occurred in the United States, the breakdown is as follows: three hundred ninety-four by lethal injection, one hundred forty-one by electrocution, eleven by gas chamber, three by hanging, and two by firing squad. Half of the post- nineteen seventy-six executions have occurred within the last five years, including fifty-two so far this year. Although the death penalty has brought many viscous criminals to a â€Å"fitting† end, the process by which the death penalty is based upon is an inconsistent one. The system of tangled appeals, court orders, and last minute pardons has rendered the entire system ineffective. As displayed by the swelling of the stagnant pool of death row inmates, criminals are not deterred by the punishment. â€Å" An evil deed is not redeemed by an evil deed of retaliation. Justice is never advanced in the taking of human life. Morality is never upheld by legalized murder.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many loopholes exist in the structure of the death penalty. The outcome of the case is decided by the quality of the lawyer defending the accused. Many criminals cannot afford a competent lawyer, resulting in a greater chance of that particular person being issued the death penalty, as opposed to life in prison. A fine line separates these two charges, and a defendant who can afford a competent lawyer stands less of a chance of being assigned the death penalty than one who cannot. Also studies show that the application of the death penalty is racial biased. The amount of violent crimes are split almost equally between the white and black ethnic groups. Since nineteen seventy-seven eighty-two percent of the criminals assigned the death penalty have committed the crime in question against a Caucasian. Another glaring defect of the structure of the death penalty system in America are the laws regarding the sentencing of criminals under the age of eighteen. Minors can be sentenced to death in twenty-four states.

Epidemiology Of Suicidal Behavior Health And Social Care Essay

The rate of posttraumatic emphasis upset in adolescence is higher than the rate of PTSD in maturity. PTSD is significantly associated with an increased hazard for self-destructive behaviour among striplings. Suicide is one of the top three causes of adolescent deceases worldwide. In the United States suicide rates among young persons are much higher than rates for the general population. Despite the strong relationship between PTSD and self-destructive behaviour, precise causal tracts associating PTSD to suicide in striplings remains ill-defined. A batch of other interceding factors and variables normally present themselves with both self-destruction and PTSD, including co-morbid psychiatric upsets, exposure to different signifiers of injury and nerve-racking life events, household history of self-destruction, core neurobiological alterations, and mental, emotional, and physiological provinces like hyperarousal, impulsivity, and aggression. Because young person is such a critical pha se of development, it is really of import that at-risk striplings are identified and referred for intervention. However, with many intervention challenges in these populations, effectual execution and usage of bar methods are of increasing importance. This reappraisal will foreground and critically analyse some of the most proved bar methods, including physician instruction, means limitation, and gatekeeper preparation, every bit good as others like public instruction runs and guidelines for the media, including those for telecasting, print media, and the Internet.Introduction: Epidemiology of Suicidal Behavior and PTSD in Adolescents and the Need for Prevention MethodsA 2010 study, utilizing the National Comorbidity Survey-Adolescent Supplement, found the lifetime prevalence of PTSD in 10,123 striplings aged 13-18 to be 5 % ( and 7 % for those aged 17-18 [ 1 ] ) . A 1999 literature reappraisal found this figure ranged from 6.3-8.1 % for striplings, compared with grownup populations which exhibited figures every bit low as 0.8-1.2 % [ 2 ] . Post traumatic emphasis upset is significantly associated with an increased hazard for self-destructive behaviour [ 3, 4 ] , though this association has been much less researched than the relationship between self-destruction and other upsets known to be risk factors, like major depression and substance-use upsets [ 5 ] . One survey found that among striplings and immature grownups, aged 14-24, who made past self-destruction efforts, PTSD corresponded with a higher hazard for self-destruction efforts than any other psychiatric unwellness [ 6 ] . Adolescents are at a peculiarly high hazard for sing traumatic events [ 7 ] and developing PTSD as a consequence of these experiences [ 8 ] . This is particularly unreassuring because young person is a critical phase of development, and holding PTSD can impede ripening and individuality formation and lead to life-long shortages with necessary mental and emotional accomplishments [ 2 ] . Harmonizing to the World Health Organization ( WHO [ 9 ] ) , self-destruction is one of the top 3 causes of decease among those aged 10-24 old ages old. About 4 million striplings attempt suicide every twelvemonth and more than 100,000 of triers successfully take their ain life, ensuing in one young person self-destruction every 5 proceedingss around the universe [ 10 ] . Annually, self-destructions are responsible for 1.6 % of all deceases in the U.S. , but 15.6 % of deceases among those aged 15-24 [ 11 ] . Judging by the fact that self-destruction is highly hard to foretell in the clinical scene [ 12 ] , concentrating a great trade of attempt on forestalling self-destructive behaviour utilizing other methods is of the extreme importance. The intent of this reappraisal is to discourse and critically analyze bar methods for self-destructive behaviour in striplings with PTSD.The relationship between PTSD and self-destructive behaviour in striplingsMore than 90 % of young person self-d estruction victims have at least one diagnosable psychiatric upset at the clip of decease [ 13 ] . 75 % of those with PTSD have other mental wellness jobs [ 14 ] . Co-morbidity of PTSD with other psychiatric conditions ( including temper upsets, substance-use upsets, and psychosis ) is associated with an increased self-destruction hazard and higher rates of self-destructive behaviour [ 5 ] . Depression is the most prevailing upset among young persons who have taken their ain lives [ 13, 15 ] . Take together, this might take one to see a few of the ( many ) possibilities of causal interaction between PTSD and self-destructive behaviour ; certain PTSD symptoms cause depression, which in bend leads to suicidal behaviour, or even that specific properties or symptoms common to all or some of the upsets mentioned above independently predict self-destructive behaviour [ 5 ] . However, with so many variables and hazard factors to take into history, the causal concatenation of events associa ting PTSD and self-destruction remains ill-defined. As a figure of surveies have pointed out, while about all self-destruction victims have at least one psychiatric upsets, most patients who have merely one or more psychiatric upsets ( without any other hazard factors ) do non really perpetrate suicide [ 16 ] . Thus, in mapping out possible avenues of causality between PTSD and self-destruction, all other hazard factors for self-destruction that might play a function must be taken into history. There is some grounds that PTSD can be an independent hazard factor for suicide [ 17, 18 ] . For illustration, a cohort survey of 1,698 immature grownups who grew up in Baltimore revealed a significantly increased hazard of self-destruction efforts for those who had PTSD compared to those without the upset and those who experienced a traumatic event without developing the unwellness ; and this increased hazard remained unchanged even after seting for some other noteworthy hazard factors, like depression and sex [ 17 ] . Research conducted by Mazza on 106 striplings in classs 9-12 revealed that PTSD symptomology was significantly related to an increased hazard of self-destructive ideation after seting for depression and gender [ 18 ] . Unfortunately, these surveies fail to command for a sufficient sum of associated hazard factors, like childhood sexual maltreatment, in order to govern out the effects of confusing variables that were n't statistically analyzed in these surveies. It is besides possible that injury and nerve-racking experiences can take to suicidality without a mediating PTSD diagnosing. Traumatic and nerve-racking events, such as exposure to terrorist act and physical and sexual maltreatment have all been found to be risk factors for PTSD, self-destruction, or other self-destructive behaviours [ 19, 20, 21 ] . However, the Baltimore young person survey listed above [ 17 ] found that merely PTSD, and non traumatic experiences, independently predicted self-destruction efforts. Besides of of import note in this survey was the determination that PTSD caused by injury that involves attacking force was significantly associated with self-destruction efforts, whereas PTSD caused by injury that did n't affect attacking force was non significantly related to suicide efforts. This determination may propose a differential association between self-destructive behaviour and the type of injury experienced. One manner of measuring the association between self-destruction and PTSD is to concentrate on some of the specific symptoms of PTSD that might be risk factors for self-destruction. One survey found that increased degrees of ill will, depression, and rousings were related to higher self-destruction hazard [ 22 ] . Hostility and increased rousing autumn within the hyperarousal bunch of PTSD symptoms. However, degrees of turning away ( avoidance bunch ) were negatively correlated with self-destruction hazard, taking the writers to speculate that turning away may function to decrease the opportunities of self-destruction ( 79 ) . In a longitudinal survey, Sourander and co-workers looked at a group of 580 striplings and found that those who exhibited aggressive behaviours ( which fall into the hyperarousal bunch ) at age 8 were significantly more likely to demo self-destructive behaviours ( specifically, suicide efforts and self-destructive thought ) 8 old ages subsequently, at age 16 [ 23 ] . Impulsivity has besides been documented to hold strong ties to both PTSD and self-destructive behaviour. For illustration, Kotler and co-workers found a positive association between impulsivity and hazard of self-destruction in patients with PTSD, as compared with matched controls, who showed no association between these two factors [ 24 ] . Given the fact that the bulk of self-destructive crises are ephemeral, unplanned, and associated with ambivalent feelings of whether to populate or to decease [ 25 ] , impulsivity seems to be an particularly strong nexus between PTSD and self-destruction. The re-experiencing symptom bunch has besides been positively associated with PTSD and suicide [ 26 ] . With respects to the efficaciousness of different get bying schemes, Amir et al documented that in PTSD patients, psychological get bying mechanisms like minimisation, function, and replacing were associated with lower hazard of self-destruction, and that suppression was associated with an increased hazard of suicide [ 27 ] . Other hazard factors for suicide include gender, a household history of self-destruction, and past self-destruction efforts. Men successfully complete suicide more frequently and be given to utilize highly-lethal agencies, as compared with females who attempt more self-destructions utilizing low-lethality processs [ 20 ] . A household history of self-destruction and old self-destruction efforts are two of the most important hazard factors for suicide [ 28 ] . A household history of self-destruction may increase the opportunity of developing PTSD [ 29 ] and old self-destruction efforts are potentially traumatising experiences in and of themselves. Having a household history of self-destruction or holding a history of self-destruction efforts can besides potentially lead to contagion-like effects. Contagious disease, a phenomenon by which interpersonal contact with self-destructive persons consequences in the spread of self-destructive behaviours ( with self-destruction methods frequently being mimicked or imitated ) , sometimes throughout full communities, is more common among youth than among those in other age groups [ 29, 13 ] . A particular type of contagious disease called the Werther consequence refers to copycat self-destructions spurred on by media coverage of people taking their ain lives. Media induced contagious disease effects will be discussed in item subsequently on. In footings of neurobiological underpinnings, injury, PTSD, and self-destruction are all associated with hyperactivity of the HPA axis [ 16, 29, 30 ] . Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is linked to traumatic experiences, like physical and sexual maltreatment, which can take to PTSD and depression [ 16 ] , which every bit mentioned, are all hazard factors for suicidality. Following injury and PTSD, dysregulation and overactivity of the HPA axis over long periods of clip can do terrible shortages in the emphasis response, and in consequence, render a individual overly-reactionary and sensitive to subsequent environmental stressors and unable to adequately suppress these fear-based reactions. This mechanism is normally referred to as sensitisation. Heightened activity in the amygdaloid nucleus and the corresponding increased emotional reactivity aid lend to sensitization [ 30 ] . PTSD is significantly associated with reduced hippocampal volume, enhanced feedback control of the HPA axis via hippocampal dysregulation [ 29 ] , neural decease or wasting, and damage of neurogenesis in this encephalon part [ 30 ] . Take together, this can take individuals with PTSD to over-generalize fear responses associated with their traumatic experiences to fresh environments or people and exhibit hypervigilance and nerve-racking reactions in even the safest of state of affairss [ 29 ] . These shortages cause symptoms related to both PTSD and suicide, such as weakness, aggression, negative outlooks, low-self regard, and self-destructiveness [ 16, 29 ] . Furthermore, impulsivity in PTSD and self-destruction is linked to shortages in the ability to suppress straitening or self-destructive emotions [ 6 ] which are associated with shortages in executive operation, every bit good as seratonergic and prefrontal cerebral mantle abnormalcies ( particularly the ventromedial prefrontal parts ) [ 16, 31 ] . Finally, it may be the instance that PTSD, self-destruction, and other associated conditio ns all portion a similar familial, epigenetic, and/or neurobiological sensitivity [ 16, 29, 30 ] .Prevention of self-destruction in striplings with PTSD:There has been a good trade of research conducted on suicide bar for the general population and besides some covering with suicide bar in adolescent populations, but none looking into bar methods tailored to suicidal striplings with PTSD. There are two general options when it comes to suicide bar: decreasing hazard factors for self-destruction or instance determination, which refers to looking for and placing at hazard individuals for referral and intervention [ 3 ] .A literature reappraisal by Mann found that the three most effectual bar techniques have proven to be means limitation, instruction of primary attention doctors, and gatekeeper preparation [ 33 ] .Meanss RestrictionMeans limitation refers to any steps taken to diminish entree to or handiness of self-destruction means [ 24 ] . Suicide triers tend to utilize specific, favorite methods, and when they are unable to achieve the agencies for these favored methods, they are less likely to do a suicide effort [ 34 ] . The chief justification for implementing agencies limitation steps is that the bulk of self-destructive crises and feelings of desiring to kill oneself are brief and transient, unplanned or unprompted, and frequently accompanied by assorted feelings of whether to populate or to decease [ 24 ] . Therefore, with more deadly means unavailable or unaccessible during this short window of chance, the self-destructive individual will either non travel through with the effort or usage less deadly agencies [ 24 ] . Given the grounds highlighted above, that impulsivity may function as a strong nexus between PTSD and self-destruction, means limitation seems as if it might be merely as effectual if a self-destructive crisis is spurred on by PTSD-related impulsivity or other PTSD symptoms associated with self-destruction mentioned above. Harmonizing to the CDC, the top three methods used by immature people in self-destructions are pieces ( 45 % ) , asphyxiation ( 40 % ) , and toxic condition ( 8 % [ 35 ] ) . One survey found that across the United States, suicide rates are higher for people populating in locations where there are more guns in places and that this association is most outstanding for striplings aged 5-19 [ 36 ] . In support of agencies limitation, surveies systematically show that go throughing piece control Torahs lead to decreases in suicide rates [ 37, 38 ] . For illustration, the passing of gun control statute law in 1976 in the District of Columbia led to a 23 % decrease in firearm-related self-destructions [ 37 ] . Similarly, gun control Torahs in South Australia led to important lessenings in self-destructions utilizing pieces, in comparing with other Australian provinces without similar gun Torahs in topographic point ( where there was an addition self-destruction rates [ 38 ] ) . For self-dest ructive striplings with PTSD, one potentially good hereafter avenue for research might be to concentrate on calculating out if PTSD caused by certain types of trauma lead to utilizing specific self-destruction means more frequently than others. For illustration, it seems sensible to believe that those that who experience gun-related injury might be less likely to take pieces as their agencies because they will likely seek to avoid any reminder of the injury at the hazard of triping reliving symptoms. The consequences of one survey already discussed above, which found that turning away behaviours were negatively correlated with self-destruction hazard [ 22 ] might supply some support for this hypothesis.Physician Education and Training:One of the most promising bar methods of self-destruction in striplings is to educate and develop primary attention doctors to better screen, place, and dainty patients with psychiatric upsets, every bit good as to mention such patients to mental welln ess attention professionals [ 33 ] . However, an inordinate sum of doctors fail to place and efficaciously give support and intervention to patients with self-destructive dispositions and associated psychiatric upsets, like depression [ 15 ] . This failure to acknowledge depression and other hazard factors related to suicide may be a major ground why most self-destruction victims go untreated before taking their ain lives [ 33 ] . Physician instruction may be of peculiar importance in kids and young person because it is frequently the instance that doctors are a young person ‘s lone beginning of mental wellness attention service [ 39 ] . The bar of self-destruction in the primary attention puting can potentially be an highly effectual method because about 75 % of all victims have contact with a doctor within a twelvemonth of self-destruction and about half of all victims have contact with a doctor within a month of taking their ain lives [ 40 ] . In one survey based in Austral ia, primary attention doctors took portion in a preparation workshop that was intended to assist them to break identify and efficaciously react to immature people at hazard for self-destruction. Despite the fact that the workshop merely lasted for one twenty-four hours, designation of self-destructive patients increased by 130 % [ 41 ] . Other surveies besides show that this bar method leads to decreases in self-destruction rates and increases in rates of placing those at an increased hazard for suicide [ 42, 43 ] . Doctors should test all striplings to measure get bying accomplishments and any ideas or behaviours, yesteryear and nowadays, which are associated with self-destructive behaviours [ 44 ] . With respects to our population of survey, doctors should besides be adept in testing for, identifying, and triaging striplings with PTSD ( and other upsets related to increased hazard of self-destruction ) . The Society for General Internal Medicine enlisted the aid of the American Association of Medicine and Psychiatry, the American Psychiatric Association, The American College of Physicians, and the American Academy of Physician in order to supply doctors with literature and guidelines to efficaciously name and handle psychiatric upsets normally observed in primary attention [ 45 ] . Furthermore, doctors might besides desire to measure which type of injury led to PTSD for different persons so as to understand turning away forms and to acquire a appreciation on which suicide methods might be most favourable for each person. Taking showing and assessment consequences into history, the clinician can besides function to organize a support system for the young person patients by opening lines of communicating with parents and other grownups and possible gatekeepers in the local community, including instructors, activity spouses, etc. [ 46 ] . In general, by organizing respectful, encouraging, and most significantly, understanding relationships with adolescent patients, primary attention doctors can open a much needed line of support for striplings in times of crisis or hurt [ 46 ] , which would be particularly utile for those self-destructive young person with co-morbid or peculiarly distressful upsets, like PTSD and depression. Screening instruments, which may concentrate on hazard factors for self-destruction or suicide entirely [ 33 ] , are valuable tools that doctors should use. These instruments faithfully lead to accurate acknowledgment of and significantly higher sensing rates of at-risk young person populations [ 47, 48 ] .Mental Health Care:Of all of the many assortments of therapies that are typically utilised in efforts to handle self-destructive people, dialectical behavioural therapy is the lone 1 that has continuously proven to be effectual in decreasing self-destructive behaviour in the grownup population [ 20 ] . Unfortunately, none of the research found on this subject has focused any attending specifically on self-destructive behaviour in striplings with PTSD. With specific respects to get bying schemes, clinicians should learn and promote PTSD patients to utilize get bying schemes associated with lower hazard of self-destruction in PTSD patients, like replacing, function, and minimisation, and to avoid those associated with higher hazard of self-destruction in PTSD patients, like suppression [ 25 ] . Harmonizing to Sher and Ganz, a combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapeutics is likely to be the best intervention option for mental wellness professionals to give to striplings with PTSD [ 29 ] .Gatekeeper Training:Gatekeeper preparation refers to educating and developing grownup community members who communicate and interact with adolescent populations on a twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours footing to acknowledge young person at hazard for self-destruction, assess their degree of hazard, and mention them to mental wellness professionals for intervention when necessary [ 33 ] . Gatekeepers can include those working in institutional scenes ( instructors, counsel counsellors, managers, prison and military functionaries, etc. ) , clergy and other spiritual professionals, constabulary, first respondents, nurses, and primary attention doctors [ 32, 33 ] . Unfor tunately, many possible gatekeepers lack either cognition of the hazard factors for young person self-destruction or do n't possess the appropriate attitudes or intercession accomplishments to efficaciously take action when needed. For illustration, a countrywide study of U.S. high school instructors showed that fewer than 10 % of all instructors felt that they could place at-risk pupils, and even amongst counsellors who possessed cognition of the hazard factors ; two tierces did n't believe that they could acknowledge pupils at hazard for suicide [ 49 ] . It becomes even more of import to contrive gatekeeper schemes when one takes into history a determination by Wyman and co-workers: of a assorted sample of 2,059 8th and 10th class pupils surveyed with respects to help-seeking attitudes, those who mentioned a past self-destruction effort were much less likely than those without a past self-destruction effort to seek aid or believe that any school forces could assist them [ 50 ] . The cumulative literature on this subject has non yet proven gatekeeper preparation to hold an independent or important consequence on decreasing self-destructive behaviour [ 32 ] . However, there have been some studies that point towards positive effects of these preparation plans. A survey based in Quebec gave gatekeeper preparation to 43 grownup â€Å" assistants † who worked with young person populations. Within 6 months of the preparation day of the month, over 60 % of the assistants made an intercession with a self-destructive young person, and the grownups given the preparation attained increased intercession accomplishments and cognition of self-destructive behaviour as compared with 28 assistants in a control group who did n't have the preparation [ 5 ] .Public Education Plans:Public instruction plans attempt to supply suicide consciousness information and inform the populace about hazard factors and designation schemes, every bit good as to assist cultivate appropriate attitudes towards suicide and self-destructive behaviour. These plans are frequently targeted at adolescent populations [ 13 ] and particularly in the school puting [ 28 ] . One survey looking at a school-based instruction run for striplings found that because of the intercession pupils were able to get by more efficaciously with emphasis and negative feelings like hopelessness [ 52 ] , which is a symptom associated with both PTSD and self-destructive behaviour in striplings. However, there is non adequate empirical grounds look intoing the efficaciousness of this method of suicide bar to do any definite decisions or recommendations [ 28, 33 ] . Such preventive intercessions can besides take to aim more specific at-risk populations like self-destructive striplings with PTSD by including information about placing persons in this population, hazard factors, and intervention options.Media Guidelines:As evidenced in the literature, the media ( print, telecasting, cyberspace ) can assist to ease decreases of young person self-destruction by supplying supportive advice and educating the populace or can hold potentially black results, raising mass contagious disease effects as a consequence of irresponsible coverage of self-destructions ( i.e. romanticizing or roma nticizing self-destruction, or dramatising more deadly self-destruction methods [ 24, 33, 53, 54, 55 ] ) . Improper coverage can even take to the instruction of new or alternate suicide methods [ 24 ] , every bit good as draw attending to suicide hot musca volitanss [ 56 ] . In this context, the effects of contagious disease can be far more black than contagious disease via person-person contact in community and local scenes ( as already discussed [ 53 ] ) . Furthermore, there is good grounds that young person populations are at the greatest hazard to media-related contagious disease effects [ 54, 57 ] : Phillips and Carstensen [ 54 ] reported that T.V. intelligence and characteristic narratives about self-destruction caused important additions in teenage self-destruction over the hebdomad following these broadcasts ( about a 7 % addition ) compared with grownup self-destructions that increased by less than half of a per centum. In add-on, broader coverage of these narratives by mor e intelligence Stationss led to higher Numberss of adolescent self-destruction. Media contagious disease ( besides normally referred to as the â€Å" Werther consequence † ) can in big portion be explained by societal larning theory [ 53 ] . In the instance of the Werther consequence, greater public attending can function as a wages to the perceiver and can show as longer continuance of coverage, greater sums of coverage [ 53 ] , and greater prominence of coverage, including front page arrangement or covering famous person self-destructions [ 58 ] . Furthermore, perceivers are more likely to pattern behavior off of others that they portion similar features with ( similar age or gender ) and maintain more attending on sing narratives that involve such people [ 59, 60 ] . For illustration, for up to 70 yearss after the screening of a hebdomadal series that depicted the railroad self-destruction of a 19-year old male pupil, the figure of railroad self-destructions were highest amongst the population of 15-19 twelvemonth old males ( with rates increasing by u p to 175 % ) , as compared to all other age/gender populations [ 60 ] . There are besides a few surveies looking into the possible relationship between PTSD and media effects. Research workers covering with 69 young persons in the 6th class who lived near Oklahoma metropolis when the 1995 bombardment took topographic point, but were non straight exposed to the event, found that indirect witnessing of the event via media beginnings was significantly associated with geting PTSD symptoms [ 61 ] . Another survey based in Ontario analyzing 143 undergraduate pupils ( aged 17-37 ) , looked at the PTSD symptomology related to media exposure to the 9/11 terrorist onslaughts. Media exposure was significantly associated with 2 of the 3 PTSD symptom bunchs, including hyperarousal and reliving symptoms, but was n't associated with the turning away bunch [ 62 ] . Taken in visible radiation of consequences already mentioned, that PTSD symptoms like hyperarousal and reliving symptoms in youth lead to an increased hazard of self-destruction, it can be inferred that media coverage of certain events can function to rise these hazard factors even more and make an even shorter span between PTSD and self-destruction. As briefly mentioned above, if conducted in a responsible mode, media studies on self-destruction can hold potentially good effects ( the Popegeno consequence ) . The chief bar method for self-destructive contagious disease and other inauspicious effects of the media is supplying describing guidelines for media organisations to follow [ 33, 63 ] . Such guidelines may include turning away of sensationalizing or dramatising self-destructions, promoting self-destructive people to seek intervention and attention, and educating them about the hazard factors and effectual header mechanisms, educating those involved in the production and describing about contagious disease, turning away of lucubrating on particulars of suicide methods or hot-spots, and restricting the coverage and prominence of suicide instances and avoiding front page arrangement [ 53 ] . These guidelines listed are some that help to organize a set of national guidelines developed by the American Foundation for Suicide Pre vention [ 64 ] . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has besides released similar guidelines for media describing [ 65 ] . Although no research has focused on the efficaciousness of these specific guidelines [ 33, 53 ] , there has been some work done on others. For illustration, in Vienna, Austria self-destruction rates, and in peculiar, rates of metro self-destructions, increased dramatically after the metro system was put into topographic point in 1978. Elmar and Sonneck documented an 80 % lessening in metro self-destructions after guidelines were developed by the Austrian Association for Suicide Prevention and spread via a media run in 1987 [ 66 ] . In another survey, after Swiss newspapers and magazines implemented a set of guidelines, research workers found that in comparing to before the guidelines, articles received less outstanding arrangement, were non as drawn-out, less sensational, and included less images [ 67 ] . Taking into history the surveies on media cove rage of PTSD, similar guidelines can be put into topographic point with minor add-ons to account for the hazard factors and symptoms associated with self-destructive striplings with PTSD. There have been comparatively few surveies looking to see if the cyberspace might hold a relationship with suicidality [ 68 ] . However, the cyberspace is of peculiar concern in visible radiation of the facts that societal networking sites can be utilized to distribute information in merely proceedingss [ 24 ] , there are suicide confab suites and web sites incorporating instructions for different self-destruction methods [ 33 ] , and about all immature Americans and striplings have internet entree to one grade or another ( with 93 % of all 12-17 twelvemonth olds and 89 % of 18-24 twelvemonth olds being online in 2009 [ 55 ] ) .. The most used societal media site, Facebook, reached 500 million registered users in 2010 [ 69 ] and in 2009, in general, societal networking sites were used on a regular footing by 73 % of teens, including 55 % of 12-13 twelvemonth olds and 82 % of 14-17 twelvemonth olds [ 70 ] . There is grounds that Facebook and other societal media sites may really function to increase societal support and hike mental well-being [ 71 ] and even halt or diminish self-destructive ideation in immature people and striplings [ 68 ] . One particularly unreassuring on-line locale is web sites devoted to advancing self-destruction by detailing information on self-destruction agencies and methods, of which there were found to be more than 100,000 in 1999 [ 72 ] . Other possible avenues for obtaining information about self-destruction include forums and self-help pages, in which other users can go forth remarks or feedback. In 2010, Ries [ 73 ] documented a instance in which a 24 twelvemonth old male poste d a remark on a forum about the purpose to kill himself. While some showed support and understanding, others egged him on. The immature adult male went on to kill himself. In footings of Internet-related PTSD effects, one survey found that amongst simple school kids who indirectly witnessed or heard about the 9/11 terrorist onslaughts via different media mercantile establishments, kids who saw or heard about it on the Internet reported more PTSD symptoms than those who witnessed the event by manner of telecasting or print media [ 74 ] . A recent cohort survey [ 68 ] conducted with 719 14-24 twelvemonth olds found that 59 % of participants saw or learned about suicide narratives on the Internet. Mental wellness information was besides attained from the participants. Although hopelessness and cognizing person who attempted or committed self-destruction at baseline were both extremely related to larning approximately self-destructions from societal networking sites, societal media was non related to additions in self-destructive ideation in these groups, proposing that these sites may really function to be effectual mediums for societal support and forestalling self-destructive behaviour. The same good effects were non observed with online forums, which were related to additions in self-destructive ideation, supplying grounds that forums may function to promote or ease self-destructive behaviour. The same goes for blogging, which was related to hopelessness. These consequences may bespeak that young persons with PTSD o r other mental wellness jobs associated with self-destruction may be best off sing societal media sites as opposed to forums or web logs. Like with other types of media bar, the Internet can besides be a medium used to adequately educate striplings about self-destruction, its causes, hazard factors, and intervention options. In order to battle the hurtful effects of suicide-promotion sites and other harmful locales, suicide-prevention web sites can be utilized to back up and steer suicidal young person to learn effectual header schemes and proper intervention options. Furthermore, mental wellness suppliers and gatekeepers like primary attention doctors and instructors can assist educate young person of the dangers and benefits of Internet usage ( 133 ) . Besides, as mentioned above, Facebook and other societal media sites may really assist to forestall self-destruction by leting support and counsel from friends and other people in one ‘s societal web [ 13, 71 ] . Finally, some signifier of media guidelines might assist to forestall the spread of contagious disease on the Internet. All of the bow mentioned bar opt ions can be utilized for self-destructive striplings with PTSD and/or other psychiatric conditions.Multi-dimensional Prevention Methods:Given the demonstrated efficaciousness of most of the bar methods discussed, it seems sensible to speculate that a more various, multi-dimensional self-destruction bar method, uniting all or some of these methods, might turn out to hold the best consequences of all. In a survey based in Nuremberg, Germany [ 76 ] both primary attention doctors and community gatekeepers ( clergy, help-lines, mental wellness attention workers, police officers, prison officers ) were given suicide bar preparation. Furthermore, media organisations ( T.V. , wireless, and newspaper ) were given guidelines to follow refering coverage of self-destructions in order to forestall imitator self-destructions and contagion-related effects. There was besides a public instruction run launched which organized talks for the general populace and enlisted the aid of public functionaries and assorted media mercantile establishments ( including a film dawdler and an internet web site ) to assist educate community members and wellness attention workers about depression ( which of class, is one of the chief hazard factors for self-destruction ) and to promote people with depression or depressive symptoms to seek aid. Result showed that over a two twelvemonth period, there was a 24 % decrease in self-destructive Acts of the Apostless ( which included completed self-destructions and suicide efforts ) , and that this decrease was important compared with the control part ( Wuerzburg, Germany ) that did n't have the bar plans. In Wuerzburg, self-destructive Acts of the Apostless increased by over 7 % over the two twelvemonth span. More research needs to be conducted on such multi-dimensional attacks in order to come to any concrete decisions about the efficaciousness of this method compared with the other methods discussed.

Impact of Opec Essays

Impact of Opec Essays Impact of Opec Essay Impact of Opec Essay The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), inter-governmental organization, was established at the Baghdad Conference in Iraq in September 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. These five countries were later joined by eight other countries; Qatar (1961), Indonesia (1962), Libya (1962), United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), and Gabon (1975). Ecuador and Gabon withdrew from OPEC in 1992 and 1994. The current eleven OPEC members account for about 40 per cent of world oil production, and two-thirds of the world’s proven oil reserves. Note: Iraq remains a member of OPEC, but Iraq’s production has not been a part of OPEC quota since 1998). The purpose of OPEC is to co-ordinate and unifies petroleum policies among the member in order to limit supplies in the hope of keeping prices high. From 1920s to 1960s, the major oil companies colluded to prevent prices from falling. In th e 1960s, OPEC had started as a group of five oil producing, developing countries, seeking out the member countries’ legitimate rights in the international oil market. So the rise of OPEC was tied to a shifting balance of power from the multi-national oil companies to the oil producing countries. The creation of OPEC intensified the need among the Third World countries for closer cooperation in order to achieve their political and economic objectives. Membership grew to ten within the decade. In 1970’s, member countries took control of their domestic petroleum industries and acquired the right to influence the pricing of crude oil on the world market. There were two oil pricing crises, triggered by the Arab oil embargo in 1973 and the Iranian Revolution in 1979. During the 1973 War between Egypt and Israel, Saudi Arabia refused to increase production in order to halt rising prices unless the United States backed the Arab position. When the U. S. government proposed a military aid package for Israel, Arab States began an oil embargo against the United States and later expanded to the Portugal, South Africa, and Netherlands. The first Summit of OPEC sovereigns and Heads of State was held in Algiers in 1975. OPEC acquired its 11th and final current member, Nigeria, in 1971. In 1980s, oil prices peaked at the early period in the decade. Iranian Revolution and ensuing stop of Iranian petroleum exports had caused panic and speculation in the world oil market. This is called Second Oil Shock. Moreover, the outbreak of the war between Iran and Iraq in 1980 affected the oil market. The Iran-Iraq war removed almost 4 million barrels of oil a day from the world market. Since early 1980s, the world petroleum market confronted OPEC with an unfavorable choice such as cutting price to regain market or cutting production to maintain price. But OPEC did not want to reduce oil prices; for fear that they would loose economic and political gains, and their political influence. Environmental issues began to be discussed as an international agenda In the early 1990s, OPEC experienced a third price crisis when Iraq invaded OPEC member Kuwait. Iraq had long claimed the territory of Kuwait. In 1991 the territorial conflict was worsen by the oil issues. One of them was the continued pumping of oil by Kuwait from a field located under both countries and another issue was low oil revenues for Iraq which made playing off its war debts difficult. Iraqi invasion would expand revenues. Iraqi power in OPEC raised oil price and increases war debts to Kuwait. Iraq thought that the United State response would be political and economic sanction. But the Iraqi invasion causes a military response which was supported by a coalition of western and Arab states. The absence of the two major oil producers (Iraq and Kuwait), could have raised the oil price to ceiling. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia and other oil producers expanded production to keep prices from raising a great deal. Since the Persian Gulf War, Iraq has refused to compliant with the United Nations resolutions; in other words, Iraq invasion has resulted in a long term oil embargo. During the 1990s, OPEC continued to emphasize oil production quotas. Oil prices collapsed at the end of the period, but began to increase in the beginning of 21st century, owing to the greater unification of OPEC members and increasing the well-governed oil company in Non-OPEC countries such as (Mexico, Oman, Russia, and Norway), and also increased tensions in the Middle East, and political crises in Venezuela affected oil prices in the world. OPEC has attempted to develop a coherent environmental policy because the international efforts to reduce the oil consumption have been more significant in this century. Economic Impact of OPEC: Our economy depends on its cost, of which a large part is represented by the cost of energy. The cost of the oil products is affected by the price of crude oil, taxation and other causes. The price of crude oil is influenced by the decisions taken by oil producers, especially the price for which they are willing to sell. Oil prices obviously matter to the world economy and OPEC still has influence on oil price decision. Higher oil prices since 1999 was partly caused by OPEC mal-management of oil supply. We can see that OPEC has influence on global economy, because oil prices remain an important determinant of economic performance of each county. If there is a shortage of oil supplies, oil price will rise. This would have all sorts of implications for industry, such as higher transportation costs. Higher costs can lead to lower economic growth. U. S. oil prices began to increase in the early 1970s when OPEC began to assume a major influence on oil prices. In 1970, OPEC members agreed to set an oil export tax rate of 55 percent, and OPEC members started to nationalize the oil industry. In 1973, Arab’s embargo resulted in that crude oil prices increased from average of $4. 15 per barrel in 1973 to $9. 07 in 1974, which led to the United States recession in 1974. In the late 1970’s, during the Iranian Revolution, declination of oil production led huge price increases. U. S. crude oil prices increased from $12. 46 per barrel in 1978 to $35. 24 in 1981. OPEC had huge impact on the economic industries. In term of oil price development, the cost of crude oil for U. S. refiners was $20 in 1996. Oil prices dropped a little in 1997; the cost fell to $12. 04 per barrel. Countries benefited from the lower cost of virtually oil products. Concerning this issue, OPEC member countries agreed to cut production, and OPEC tried to maintain the crude oil price above U. S. refiner cost in 1999. The production cuts pushed crude oil price up, hitting $30 per barrel in 2000. The production, however, started to increase, because OPEC tried to maintain market stability. Economic impact of OPEC has declined in the decades. The United States and other economies are less dependent on oil than they were 20 years ago. Because U. S. and other nation’s economies produces much more national output for each barrel of oil consumed compare to when they produced before. In 1970s, the U. S. economy generated about $250,000 of national output based on per barrel of oil consumed, but in 1999, economy produced about $450. 000 per barrel. This date shows the improved performance of the U. S. economy based on per barrel of oil consumed. Efficiency improvements, seeking out other energy sources have lessened the dependence of the U. S. economy on oil. Another data shows the declination of economic impact of OPEC, the U. S. economy spent more than 6 percent of GDP in crude oil in 1980 and 1981, when average price of crude oil was $28 a barrel. In 1996 to 1997, the price was $20 per barrel. But the percent of GDP spent on crude oil is less than 2 percent and 1 percent in 1998. These data indicates that oil price increases has less influenced the economy than they had in 1980s. Power of Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia’s economy heavily dependent on oil with export oil revenues accounting around 90 percent of total Saudi export earning, 70 percent of state revenues and 40 percent of the its GDP. Saudi Arabia holds the world’s largest petroleum reserves and accounts over one-third and one-half of total OPEC oil production. Saudi Arabia’s oil policy has huge influence world oil pricing. Three basics of its policy are; maintaining stability in oil markets; opposing high oil prices that might discourage demand growth or lead to a rapid rise in Non-OPEC production; maintaining its own dominant market share in the United States. Saudi Arabia has dominated the world oil market by emphasizing the market control and avoiding the new competition and maintaining the higher prices. It is true that the policy has worked well. Saudi Arabia is considered as a dominant firm while many other OPEC countries are price-takers. One thing with the problem that Saudi Arabia is a dominant firm is that its share of OPEC production rose from 24 percent in 1973 to 37 percent in 1980. So Saudi Arabia is in a better situation than other exporters. Within a considerable range of market conditions, Saudi Arabia could stabilize prices by restricting its own production and exports. Saudi Arabia also has a great ability to expand its production, and has wide political influence that reinforces the power that it derives from being the largest exporters of oil. In 1999, Saudi Arabia took a key role in coordinating campaign of OPEC and other oil-producing countries to raise the oil price to its highest level since the Gulf War by managing production and oil supply. Moreover, Saudi Arabia established the Supreme Economic Council to formulate and coordinate economic development policies for institutional reforms. Relationship to Non-OPEC Countries and Prospects: OPEC and Non OPEC countries often agree to reduce oil and gas supply to check prices. This cooperation is rather strange but since both organizations often benefit from high oil price, then each organization may be obliged to cut or increase oil production at the request of the other countries. So oil price is decided based on demand and supply to maximize the profit of producing of OPEC and Non-OPEC. OPEC supplies 40 percent to 45 percent of world’s oil supply and holds 75 percent of proven revenues and Non-OPEC countries produce 60 percent of the world oil (est. 2004). Most Non-OPEC countries have private sectors; there is little government intervention over production level. Non-OPEC productions were more vulnerable to price collapse because Non-OPEC countries’ production costs tend to be higher than OPEC costs. The production of Non-OPEC countries has declined in decades, and OPEC may be more important role to decide oil prices. However, OPEC has actual influence on price, but does not control or set the oil price directly. The world oil market itself appears to be in change of pricing and in a long term the main deciding factor will be substantially of OPEC revenues. The problem of capacity and depletion will be more significant. When oil price increases, countries start to produce more and undersell each other. The question arises as to how efficiently OPEC can implement the long –term strategy? Needless to say, we are faced with the problem â€Å"increasing demand and decreasing supply† in the world oil market. Reduction of oil production in Non-OPEC is also a burden to OPEC. OPEC member countries are aware of growing international need of renewable energy and environmental problems due to use of fossil fuels. But there is no specific alternative energy supply in the near future and there is no significant regulation to control energy consumption in the market based economy. How many people feel it an emergency? How many people know that the United State has refused to sign the Kyoto Protocol? It will not take long before our demand completely exceeds the production capability of the oil countries.

woments rights essays

woments rights essays t was long ago when women were looked upon as slaves to the hard Working, man. In today's society women now are more respected and are acceptable for many jobs as men are. Yet, long before our time during World War II, women were thought many different things that they could only imagine. During the postwar, women were, then equipped with many different abilities colliding with their home chores and knowledge. Women then took their stand and many acts were passes in their favor. In this essay I shall be discussing the many different requirements women went through during World War II, their postwar abilities, and the discussion of what the men in the past had The war's demand, the war had made the proposition to the women to do the man's work (Leahy, pg.35). Women were encouraged to take these jobs for the first time in history. To some it was a shock but to many it was a divine privilege. By 1942 a poll showed that only 13% of Americans opposed women in the workforce (Leahy, pg.36). Many of them also became war nurses and helped many of the men recover. It would seem that women's interests in occupational equality were directly linked to the nation's state of distress. Many women were exceptionally well at making bombs and took the place of men. During the war women received many different opportunity and advancement in their lives. Even though there were many laws prohibiting women from working they still came through for our country (Walker, pg.2). For once women were looked at as producers and not reproducers. After the war the men had returned home and back steps began to take place with the women. In 1945, 3/4 of the women polled by the Women's Bureau of the Department of Labor wished to continue working which showed their interests in the skills they possessed. During this point much frustration ran through these women for th ...

Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining Research Paper

Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining - Research Paper Example However, the health sector is more sensitive. Lives are lost when the doctors and nurses resort to industrial action. There is a lot to be said on whether it is morally right for people whose profession is to save people’s lives to be on strike. This is attributed to the fact that when they do so, they put the same lives in jeopardy (Olin, 2012). However, it must be admitted that when such a time comes, decisions have to be made by the management. The person who normally is at the sharp end of decision making at such times is the Human Resource Director. This paper shall seek to explore the alternatives available to the Human Resource director in the case that nurses at their hospital make the decision to become unionized. At the sound of it, unionization of nurses at several levels sounds like a paradox. This is because at the end of their training, they take the Hippocratic Oath which envisions a workplace where the medical service providers are to be more concerned about the well-being of their clients, more than their own. Therefore, nurses are categorized under what might be labeled as essential services. They are not expected to withdraw their services because of industrial action. However, in today’s world, pragmatism has to prevail. If the nurses fail to get what they expect they might not in turn offer the best care that their profession is intended to offer. Thus, in a way good healthcare begins with making the nurses happy, rather than the patients. This is because happy nurses will provide better services which might possibly result in better healthcare (Olin, 2012). The other important thing to note is that as much as unionization is a huge disruption to the provision of services, it is within the rights of the workers to resort to such action in the event that their grievances are not being listened to. As a Human Resource Director, the acceptance of that fact is a huge step in the

Mergers & Acquisitions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mergers & Acquisitions - Essay Example The earnings per share is 15.5p, which must be maintained. Therefore x/15.5 =8, hence x = 124p or 1 pound and 24 pence. This is the price of 1.24 pounds at which Smith plc may be valued for purpose of the merger if a P/E ratio of 8 must be achieved. On this basis, the average price of a share in a merged entity of both Amanda plc and Smith plc works out to {(1.24 + 2.40)/2} = 1.82 pounds, which is the market price that must be set for the share. In such a case, this would result in a lowering of the Amanda plc share value in the market by (2.40 – 1.82) = 0.58 pence, while in the case of Smith plc share holders, the value of their stock rises by (1.82 -1.03) = 79 pence. Therefore, it may be noted that the second option appears to be the better choice, since it entails less losses for Amanda plc shareholders and more gains for Smith plc shareholders, in terms of share values. In order to assess the earnings on the shares that can be estimated while also maintaining some growth in the next three years, it may be noted that Amanda plc is currently on a growth track but will decline in the next three years, but for Smith plc future growth prospects look good but the limitation is finances. The current rate of return on the Smith plc shares is (15.5 X 100/103) – 15%. On the basis of current earnings per share for Smith plc being 15.5 pence, if a growth rate of at least 15% is desired in 3 years with a desired rate of return of at least the current 15%, then the current fair market value should be at least 1.02 pounds. (ww.moneychimp.com). This is more or less the current value of the Smith plc stock (1.03 pounds) and a growth rate of 15% can be achieved although the PEG ratio is on the higher side. The P/E ratio in this case will be 9.7 and the PEG ratio will be 0.64. On the other hand, if a growth rate of 30% is desired with a similar 15% rate of ret urn on Smith plc stock, then the fair market value that must